What is organic farming?

Organic farming can be defined as an approach to agriculture where the aim is to create integrated, humane, environmentally and economically sustainable agricultural production systems. Maximum reliance is placed on locally or farm-derived renewable resources and the management of self-regulating ecological and biological processes and interactions in order to provide acceptable levels of crop, livestock and human nutrition, protection from pests and diseases, and an appropriate return to the human and other resources employed. Reliance on external inputs, whether chemical or organic, is reduced as far as possible. In many European countries, organic agriculture is known as ecological agriculture, reflecting this reliance on ecosystem management rather than external inputs.

The objective of sustainability lies at the heart of organic farming and is one of the major factors determining the acceptability or otherwise of specific production practices. The term 'sustainable' is used in its widest sense, to encompass not just conservation of non-renewable resources (soil, energy, minerals) but also issues of environmental, economic and social sustainability. The term 'organic' is best thought of as referring to the concept of the farm as an organism, in which all the component parts - the soil minerals, organic matter, micro-organisms, insects, plants, animals and humans - interact to create a coherent and stable whole.

The key characteristics of organic farming include:

protecting the long term fertility of soils by maintaining organic matter levels, encouraging soil biological activity, and careful mechanical intervention;

providing crop nutrients indirectly using relatively insoluble nutrient sources which are made available to the plant by the action of soil micro-organisms;

nitrogen self-sufficiency through the use of legumes and biological nitrogen fixation, as well as effective recycling of organic materials including crop residues and livestock manures;

weed, disease and pest control relying primarily on crop rotations, natural predators, diversity, organic manuring, resistant varieties and limited (preferably minimal) thermal, biological and chemical intervention;

the extensive management of livestock, paying full regard to their evolutionary adaptations, behavioural needs and animal welfare issues with respect to nutrition, housing, health, breeding and rearing;

careful attention to the impact of the farming system on the wider environment and the conservation of wildlife and natural habitats.

wirs.aber.ac.uk

Genetically modified food

Kenyans examining insect-resistant transgenic Bt corn.

From Wikipedia

Genetically Modified (GM) foods are produced from genetically modified organisms (GMO) which have had their genome altered through genetic engineering techniques. The general principle of producing a GMO is to insert DNA that has been taken from another organism and modified in the laboratory into an organism's genome to produce both new and useful traits or phenotypes. Typically this is done using DNA from certain types of bacteria. GM Foods have been available since the 1990s, with the principal ones being derived from plants; soybean, corn, canola and cotton seed oil.[1]

Controversies surrounding GM foods and crops commonly focus on human and environmental safety, labelling and consumer choice, intellectual property rights, ethics, food security, poverty reduction, and environmental conservation. See also: GM food controversy.

Organic food

From Wikipedia


An organically-grown apple. Fruits and vegetables grown organically are similar to conventionally grown produce. In most jurisdictions, organic food must meet specified production standards, which specify growing and processing conditions different from normal agricultural and food safety requirements.

Organic foods are produced according to certain production standards. For crops, it means they were grown without the use of conventional pesticides, artificial fertilizers, human waste, or sewage sludge, and that they were processed without ionizing radiation or food additives For animals, it means they were reared without the routine use of antibiotics and without the use of growth hormones. In most countries, organic produce must not be genetically modified.
Increasingly, organic food production is legally regulated. Currently, the United States, the European Union, Japan and many other countries require producers to obtain organic certification in order to market food as organic.
Historically, organic farms have been relatively small family-run farms which is why organic food was once only available in small stores or farmers' markets. Now, organic foods are becoming much more widely available — organic food sales within the United States have grown by 17 to 20 percent a year for the past few years while sales of conventional food have grown at only about 2 to 3 percent a year. This large growth is predicted to continue, and many companies are jumping into the market.

ALTERNATIVE BREEDING CRITERIA AND PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH

The objectives of selection for the development of varieties for organic agriculture differ from those for conventional agriculture. It is of crucial importance to utilize the genotype potential for an improved adaptation of varieties to the low-input conditions prevailing in organic agriculture.

Breeding for high performance and selecting for early maturity have led to increased susceptibility to infectious diseases, joint inflammation and mastitis as well as circulatory, metabolic and fertility problems of livestock. Loss of breeds is exacerbated by the narrowing genetic base of modern breeds and hybrid lines. The trend towards inbreeding increases the degree of genetic uniformity in the animals and hence, susceptibility to infection, parasites or epidemics.

The majority of crop varieties available on the commercial market are not suitable for organic cultivation methods as they have been selected for production dependent on large quantities of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. Many of these are also hybrids and are not open pollinated. In the last few years, the problem has worsened following the arrival on the market of genetically modified varieties.

Limitations and threats associated with crops has stimulated many organic farmers, especially in the horticulture sector, to produce their own seeds. In order to do this, they have often had to rescue local varieties and develop their own system of selection and distribution. These empirical systems have been based on the selection of individuals better adapted to the local environment and that are more resistant to pests and diseases. In many cases, the systems include the exchange of seeds between farmers as a fundamental instrument (e.g. organic seed fairs). In other cases, the tastes of the consumers have also been taken into consideration, as is the case of La Verde Cooperative, Andalusia, Spain.

Many of these systems have demonstrated interesting results in the selection of varieties suitable for low external-input situations. The selection systems developed by organic farmers have restored and improved local varieties. These varieties often present a high degree of genetic variability and as such, these systems have played an important role in the in situ conservation of agricultural biodiversity through cultivation and production. This has since been studied by research centres specialized in the selection of seeds and plants. For example, in Cuba, these studies are being used as the basis for the refinement of methodologies for the selection of varieties for low-input situations.

Historically, farmers have managed many varieties and breeds according to agronomic and culinary properties. Considering the need for a wide gene pool to improve and multiply genetic resources for food and agriculture, seeds ad breeds from the formal and informal sectors should be included harmoniously in local and national breeding programmes. Benefits derived from new varieties bred by farmers require a legal system of common ownership that allows equitable access and benefits sharing. The biodynamic network of farmers and breeders in Germany provides an example of how such a system could be organized.

In situ restoration of local varieties through organic agriculture, Andalucia, Spain

The cooperative "La Verde" in Villamartin, Cadiz, Spain, was founded in 1987 when a group of day labourers linked to the farm workers syndicate decided to organize themselves to overcome the precarious labour situation in which they found themselves.

From the outset they followed methods of production that respected the natural environment and which equally integrated women in the cooperative. The main concern was the restoration of traditional cultivation techniques and the transmission of the knowledge generated. Their decision to cultivate following methods of organic agriculture arise on one side from the negative effects of conventional agriculture on health and the natural environment and on the other, from the few market opportunities that conventional agriculture offered them.

In 2000, the cooperative cultivated 13 hectares of horticultural crops and employed seven people. The cooperative sells the majority of it products directly through the local market, complementing this with sales through consumers associations.

One of the problems that the cooperative has been facing since the beginning has been the lack of commercial varieties adapted for organic agriculture. For this reason, one of the practices adopted was the restoration of local varieties of horticultural crops, better adapted to the system of organic agriculture. This has involved the exchange of seeds with other farmers and the selection of seeds on the basis of a number of criteria, principally resistance to distinct adversities and the taste of local consumers.

Other organic cooperative activities highlighted the necessity for a long-term project for the restoration of traditional varieties. With the help of the Institute of Sociology and Farming Studies at the University of Cordoba, the Council of the Assembly of Andalusia and the Syndicate of farm workers of Andalusia, a research project was initiated in 1988. The project entitled "Study of the potential use of local varieties of horticultural crops for organic agriculture" was concentrated on the process of agro-ecological use of biodiversity by local farmers in two zones of Andalusia: Sierra de Grazalema (Cadiz) and Antequera.

The project was carried out in a participatory fashion and following objectives linked to the management of plant genetic resources in line with the necessities of the cooperative and the rest of the organic agriculture sector. The project included 63 of the most common local varieties of horticultural crops in the area (e.g. tomatoes, aubergine, bell peppers, water melon, melon, lettuce, courgette, squash and carrot) and involved:

• strengthening farmers network for the exchange and conservation of local varieties of seeds;
• diversifying the financial sources for the cooperatives and creating alternative markets for organic seeds;
• taking advantage of knowledge and genetic material restored during the years that the cooperative has been functioning, strengthening their use;
• elaboration of an inventory and characterization of varieties following a series of botanical and agronomic descriptions, with a view to restore the knowledge of use linked to them;
• increasing on-farm biodiversity, including the use of wild plants from the area as forage and green manures;
• offering to the organic sector the possibility to use seeds of traditional varieties aiming to guarantee their long-term survival in the area and allowing the restoration of organoleptic and cultural characteristics associated with these varieties.
• introduction of varieties obtained from the area or restored through germplasm banks;
• agronomic valuation of the varieties with the help of agronomic experts of the area;
• participatory evaluation of the quality of the varieties, following criteria required by farmers and consumers.

The strategy followed takes into consideration not only the characteristics of the varieties but also the values of the consumers and the contribution of farmers. Members of the cooperative were responsible for deciding what varieties could be used directly for production and above all, what varieties and characteristics they will continue working with in their selection.

The activities of La Verde cooperative in the restoration and use of suitable local varieties of horticultural crops for organic agriculture has formed the basis of a project for the in situ restoration of the genetic biodiversity of distinct varieties of horticultural crops. The empirical selection criteria adopted by the organic farmers has allowed the maintenance in cultivation of local varieties, but has also permitted researchers to elaborate a valid system of in situ conservation that includes an active role for farmers and consumers.

Changes in plant breeding of pumpkins as response to socio-economic limitations, Cuba

Since the beginning of the economic crisis in 1989, the Cuban Government has attempted to reduce the negative impact of the lack of inputs for agriculture. National strategies have been implemented to accelerate research and its application in areas including biological control, crop rotations and polycultures. This has resulted in major changes in some of the goals of Cuban plant breeding and a search for more appropriate methods of participatory plant breeding.

Pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata) in Cuba is very popular for culinary and medicinal properties, taste, beta-carotene content and use in some religious ceremonies. With the drastic reduction of chemical inputs and artificial irrigation, the abrupt decrease in productivity resulted in pumpkins disappearing from the market.

Research into the pumpkin provides a clear example of how plant breeding systems changed in response to these constraints. Initially the use of conventional seeds was maintained, but substantial yield reductions necessitated a change in response. After exploring new seed varieties from international seed companies to little avail, landraces from diverse sources within Cuba were investigated. Cuba then began a system of participatory plant breeding whereby trials were conducted by farmers themselves on their own land in collaboration with researchers.

This change in approach stimulated discussions into the efficiency, advantages and weakness of chemical as compared to organic inputs and on their application in approaches to plant breeding within the country. In terms of energy consumption, inputs used on farm and farmers' participation, the collaborative effort towards crop improvement under low-input conditions was much more efficient in terms of energy use. Notably, the yield obtained under the low-input system was comparable to yields under the conventional, high-input technology package (i.e. 6-8 tonnes per hectare).

Pumpkin varieties were maintained and their seed multiplied through cross-pollination (rather than isolation) and honey bees were frequently used. Farmers participation allowed on-farm selection of half sib families (rather than contracted seed production), screening germplasm, facilitating availability of new germplasm and evaluation of varieties with farmers.

Working on farm with farmers provided two important insights. First, wide genotype variability of useful traits exists and has been documented among pumpkin landraces grown under low-input conditions. Second, it is possible to increase production by selecting directly for fruit yield under low-input conditions. Under this experience, plant breeders offered a bridge between the plant genetic resources conserved in gene banks and farmers, and the opportunity to screen those resources. Clearly, farmers' agricultural knowledge and skills was an inspiration to develop a new, collaborative approach towards a more efficient use of inputs such as energy, more profitable crop production and maintenance of greater genetic diversity in situ.

A Participatory Plant Breeding for Strengthening Agrobiodiversity is now on-going to investigate how such alternative practices can rebuild, improve and distribute biodiversity in Cuba. Interesting results of farmers experimentation are already apparent on research for maize resistant to fallarmy worm (Spodoptera frugiperda) and beans with good productivity under low-input conditions.

Network of biodynamic seed production and plant breeding, Germany

The disappearance of open-pollinated varieties and more recently, the development of gene technology and its multinational structure are the main drives for establishing breeding methods and cultivars suited to organic agriculture and organic markets.

For over 15 years now, the Association for Biodynamic Vegetable Plant Breeding (Kultursaat) in Germany has been working on biodynamic plant breeding and seed production. This is done through a network of farmers, breeders, a seed company and the Kultursaat Association (see attachment 1). The objectives of the Network are the following:

• good plant development and root growth (capable of relating to beneficial soil organisms);
• growth through organic fertilizers (i.e. energy and nutrient efficiency);
• ability to interact with the environment;
• tolerance and resistance to adversities (disease resistant or tolerant);
• development of species-typical growth patterns and maturation processes;
• good, species-typical taste and nutritional quality.

The activity of plant breeding is returned to farmers themselves. Practical care of plants, their propagation, testing of new varieties and maintenance is best applied by farmers. Farmers build up on their experience and knowledge of crops and cultivation methods. Breeders and farmers practice, at the farm level, breeding methods that both achieve quality and respond to the specific needs of organic agriculture (see attachment 2). Since maintenance and breeding are integrated in the vegetable production and that the most applied breeding technique is positive mass selection, the additional work to the farmer is relatively small.

Breeding and selection skills are provided by the Kultursaat Association through regular meetings and, if necessary, through individual training from experienced farmers working on the same crops. Meetings are held once a year at the regional level and three times a year at national level. During these meetings, farmers share knowledge on botanical and breeding issues, develop new ideas and exchange experiences and breeding lines. International exchange is starting within Europe and there are plans to further extend it.

Since the Association receives financial support from donations, some of the farmers are paid for full-time breeding activities. This allows establishing broader breeding programmes and research. The new varieties generated from these programmes can be registered directly or can be given to other breeders/farmers in different areas for adaptation to different growing conditions.

With regards conservation of biodiversity, it is not sufficient to preserve varieties in seed banks, or just on-farm. A constant and proper selection effort is necessary to maintain varieties value as well as adaptation to specific growing conditions. The maintenance of one variety in different places will create new varieties within a few generations. Therefore, more diversity is created, according to different biophysical conditions.

Research experience has so far demonstrated that most varieties (e.g. cereals) do best under the conditions under which they were bred. This is especially true in terms of resilience to adversities which are bound to the place of origin. Cultivation under different natural conditions takes 3 to 5 generations to regain resilience. The general condition of the variety, however, is not to be discounted when evaluating its likely adaptability.

Breeding methods are based on diversification and regional adaptation, including:

• consistent and rigorous selection from a large stock base;
• single plant selection;
• cross-fertilization;
• creating varieties and developing special characteristics through: geology, geography and mineral provision; effects of planetary influences and the biodynamic preparation; and influence of human and cultural conditions.

The organic seed company was founded and is partly owned by the farmers/breeders. The seed company looks after cleaning, quality testing and distribution. The Kultursaat Association coordinates plant breeding and provides financial support, payment of registration and testing fees. To date, Kultursaat has bred more than 20 new (registered) varieties (e.g. carrots, cabbage, spinach). Most importantly, the Association is the owner of new varieties, which ensures common ownership and benefit sharing among all participants.

Recently, the breeding and selection network is expanding to other European countries (i.e. Austria, Italy, Switzerland and United Kingdom): ideas, experiences, varieties and breeding lines are shared to provide a widely available open-pollinated assortment of vegetable seeds of high quality.

Originated by: Sustainable Development Department

FAO Corporate Documentary Repository.

TRADITIONAL AND COMMUNITY-BASED MANAGEMENT

In some communities, the adoption of conventional agriculture has substituted traditional cultivation systems with high biodiversity for monocrops of genetically similar individuals. In a relatively short period of time, such systems have led to environmental degradation, social disintegration and misery within communities. However, many traditional agricultural systems that have been the basis of food security and community cultures have since been saved through organic agriculture approaches.

The introduction of organic management, based on traditional experiences and new knowledge of natural processes, has allowed the maintenance of the agro-ecological systems and has improved socio-economic conditions of rural communities, especially in environmentally vulnerable areas. These agricultural systems are also based on strong farmer participation in the decision-making process, exchange of information and distribution of benefits.

The examples below illustrate the community-based rehabilitation of abandoned and degraded agro-ecosystems, through organic agriculture, in flood plains of Bangladesh and mountainous areas of Indonesia and Mexico. The polycultures systems established by these communities (like many others around the world) are characterized by highly diversified ecosystems and an improved agricultural biodiversity. The good markets associated with organic products has not only provided food but has also generated further community services.

Nayakrishi Andolon - a community-based system of organic farming, Bangladesh

In the flood plains of Bangladesh, community-based organic agriculture resulted from an increasing awareness to the harmful effects of the Green Revolution. The latter was showing a tremendous decline in crop yields despite an enormous increase in the need for the application of fertilizers and pesticides. Groundwater was less available, livestock and fish populations were diminishing, the health situation was worsening (including gastric, skin and respiratory diseases) and exogenous varieties were gradually replacing traditional varieties. This forced many poor farmers to sell their land and other productive assets, shifting from farming to non-farming occupations.

Following particularly terrible floods in 1988, some farmers, together with UBINIG (Policy Research for Development Alternatives), a non-governmental organization, gathered together to seek an alternative - not just an alternative method of farming, but community-based work, which is organic in nature. They named it Nayakrishi Andolon (New Agriculture Movement). The rationale for such a name was to indicate that this method is not "old" in a backward sense; but is a newer method, incorporating traditional knowledge and wisdom and appropriating newer ideas and "scientific" innovations that are suitable for farmers and the environment.

Initially, the peasant women took the lead in stopping the use of pesticides, mainly for health reasons. Then, a group of farmers organized themselves to experiment with green manure and compost. Compost made of water hyacinth, available in plenty, became quite popular and soon Nayakrishi Andolon spread from village to village. As experience and confidence grew, the farmers developed a set of ten simple principles for Nayakrishi farming, all focusing on the use of locally available resources to enhance the efficiency of land, water, biodiversity and energy as well as the control over seed within the farming community.

In addition to chemical-free agricultural practices, the production of biodiversity is built-in within the Nayakrishi method of food production. As a fundamental principle of agricultural practice, Nayakrishi farmers reject monoculture and base their practices on mixed cropping and crop rotation. It has an immediate effect in overcoming the present narrow genetic base, but is also a highly effective method for pest management and the nutritional health of the soil.

In Nayakrishi villages, farmers derive more varieties of fish, together with a wide range of uncultivated crops, which either come as accompanying crops due to multiple cropping in the fields, or grow on the common land as no more herbicides are used. Livestock and poultry also develop more rapidly, thereby enriching the food security of the people. Similarly, the planting of local-variety trees is an integral part of the practice in Nayakrishi villages, which, in turn, attracts birds, butterflies and other pollinators and predators.

The local species, varieties and breeds are always preferred to those that are introduced. The strategy of Nayakrishi Andolon for the maintenance and regeneration of biodiversity and genetic resources is based on some simple rules and obligations between members. The strategic importance is in the conservation and regeneration of species and the genetic variability of the cultivated crops and homestead forestry. However, there are a large number of species and varieties that are not cultivated. The conservation and regeneration of biodiversity for these species and varieties are mainly maintained by the overall organization of Nayakrishi Andolon.

Every village where Nayakrishi is actively adopted has its own gram karmi (extension workers). Apart from networking and campaigning for Nayakrishi, gram karmi maintain audits of the natural resources of the village. This information is pooled collectively and is a vital practice in maintaining and managing the local biodiversity. The Nayakrishi farmers can easily be put on alert if it appears that any "land race" or "wild" species or variety is disappearing or being lost.

Around 65 000 families from all over Bangladesh now follow Nayakrishi principles and the movement is spreading fast. Most important is the general confidence among farmers that Nayakrishi is "economically viable", but the ecological situation is also improving, the land is regaining fertility and biodiversity is being strengthened.

Ladang cultivation of organic spices in Sumatra, Indonesia

On the island of Sumatra, Indonesia, ruthless exploitation by forestry, fishing and extractive industries in the last decades has decreased the rich biodiversity of the region. Despite this, some areas still survive in a state close to that of pre-European colonisation, mainly because of their mountainous, remote locations. Some of these areas form part of national parks that still support the rare Sumatra tiger, rhinoceros and elephant, as well as some native people following traditional lifestyles in the forest.

Many poor farmers live around these areas and use slash-and-burn techniques for the production of crops for self-sufficiency and for the market. These practices threaten the remaining forest areas and even the national parks on whose boundaries they encroach.

Thomas Fricke, a former advisor to the United Nations, World Wildlife Fund and Indonesian national parks on sustainable agriculture projects, aimed to find a solution to that problem. In 1995, he and his wife Sylvia Blanchet founded ForesTrade, an international company dedicated to preserving biodiversity through responsible trade.

In 1996 ForesTrade, in collaboration with local NGOs and the National Parks of Indonesia began the Indonesian Cassia Cinnamon Project, encouraging local farmers to stop clear-cutting the rainforest. The project focused on land bordering a national forest park, providing a buffer zone for the protection of biodiversity in the rapidly disappearing forested areas.

Some of the local people joined forces with ForesTrade, creating grower groups for the production of organic spices for the European and the United States markets. Good prices, generally a little better than could be expected from the conventional market, are paid to the farmers, together with a bonus to the local community. The community bonus is used to run training centres, nurseries and other community services.

These farmers agree to follow organic agriculture practices, avoiding the use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers. They rely instead on composting, crop rotation and biological pest and disease control. Organic growers are not permitted to use fire for clearing their plots. All slashing and weed control is done by hand, using simple tools such as axes, hatchets, machetes or knives. Slashed matter is then reduced to mulch. Farmers also agree not to poach rainforest resources, where some farmers previously clear-cut slopes to plant crops, spoiling the environment and causing widespread erosion.

Crops are produced in a modified, traditional "home garden" or "shifting cultivation" situation. Each grower operates one or more traditional garden (or Ladang) in which a variety of annual plants (such as potato, aubergine and onion), short-lived plants (such as cassava, banana and yam) and longer-lived plants (such as cloves and cinnamon) are produced. As the Ladang matures, the longer-lived trees dominate shading under-storey crops. These trees can be either selectively felled (e.g. cinnamon) or left to produce during their mature phase (e.g. cloves and coconuts) before the cycle is started again.

Certified-organic growers in Sumatra produce a variety of spices and essential oil crops, such as chilli, turmeric, ginger, vanilla, cloves, allspice, cardamom, nutmeg (and mace), black and white pepper, patchouli and cassia (cinnamon). They are inspected and certified by the National Association for Sustainable Agriculture (Australia), by the Dutch certification body SKAL or by Oregon Tilth.

In a short time approximately, 3 000 Sumatran farmers have begun producing organic spices for the world markets. This has led to improved socio-economic conditions for communities while at the same time preserving biodiversity both in the national parks and in the local agroforestry systems (garden/forest plots).

Organic coffee production and biodiversity management, Chiapas, Mexico

At the end of 1980s, small coffee producers (most of them Tzotzil and Tzeltal indigenous people) in San Cristóbal de Las Casas, the highlands of Chiapas, southern Mexico, faced a deep economical crisis due to the fall in coffee prices on the world market. Together with the disappearance of direct support for coffee growers in terms of technical assistance, marketing and financial support, this resulted in the abandonment of practices for maintaining the crop and processing the beans, leading to lower yields and product quality.

Many of these farmers have organized themselves in 1983 into the Beneficio "Majomut" Coffee Growers' Union of Ejidos and Communities, a grassroots social organization with 1 450 members in 25 communities. The organization was created as a means to bring together farmers in the processing and direct marketing of their coffee. Members work an average of two hectares and cultivate corn, beans and coffee. As coffee is sold, it forms the main source of family income. Gradually, work has expanded to include the entire productive process and it has become a means for organizing, managing and carrying out integral development projects for the communities.

To fight the declining price crisis, farmers were compelled to find alternatives to conventional coffee production and marketing, so they decided on organic coffee production. The conversion to organic agriculture began in 1992, and by 1995 the first organic certificate was granted. The introduction of organic techniques has been carried out through the training of community promoters who create experimental organic lots in each community as a base for the learning process and research.

Activities are based on the exchange of experiences through a farmer-to-farmer approach including: development and evaluation of agro-ecological practices, participatory research through farmer experimentation, and training of community promoters and community participation. The agents participating in the process include: communities associated with farmers organizations, the network of promoters, the coordinating network of small coffee growers' organizations and international cooperation agencies. The Majomut Union is also promoting work with women to strengthen participation in the organization's internal democracy.

Farmers' extension covers the following themes: soil conservation; production of organic fertilizers; coffee pruning; management of the diversity of animal and plant species; natural control of pests and diseases; organic production of crops for self-sufficiency in maize, beans and other food species; and internal control for supervision of the organic certification of the coffee and quality control of the product.

The management of biodiversity within the coffee production systems and other cultivations constitutes an example of a rich local germplasm and of knowledge applied in the design of the stratification of the vegetation. This is knowledge transmitted from generation to generation resulting from a continuous process of adaptation.

In 1995, a census was carried out on the species found in the organic coffee production systems of La Unión. The study demonstrated that besides coffee, there were more than thirty associated plant species of agronomic interest: fruit trees (loquat, mango, lime, guava, peach and orange), shade trees (eucalyptus, ash and pine), horticultural crops (tomato, chilli and beans), as well as medicinal plants and others used for the prevention of erosion. The benefits generated by the higher organic coffee prices were therefore accompanied by an improvement in the biodiversity of the coffee production system.

Originated by: Sustainable Development Department

FAO Corporate Documentary Repository.

Country Profile > Bangladesh

Location

Situated in South Asia, Bangladesh has a total area of 144,000 km2. Bangladesh is bordered in the West, North, and East by India, on the South East by Myanmar (Burma), and on the South by the Bay of Bengal, with a total boundary length of 4,246 km2. Bangladesh has a tropical monsoon climate.

Agricultural sector

Agriculture is one of the largest sectors of the economy. It comprises 20% of the country's GDP, whilst employing 60% of the total labour force. Major agricultural products include cotton, rice, jute, tea, wheat, cane, oilseeds, potatoes, beef, milk, poultry, tobacco, pulses, spices, and fruit (FAOSTAT, 2005-2006). Rice is produced on 60% of all cropped land in Bangladesh. Jute is the main cash crop of Bangladesh, it produces about one-quarter of the total jute supply of the world. The combined total exports of jute and jute products represents 13–15% of Bangladesh's annual export earnings. The fishery sector has also an important role in the economy of Bangladesh, and it has grown notably in the last years. The land is fertile, but yields are usually low due to a lack of capital for input. The land use is divided as follows: arable land 55%, permanent crops 3%, others 42% (CIA, 2007).

Brief overview of organic farming

The organic sector in Bangladesh emerged in 1988. By 2006, Bangladesh became the second country in Asia with total hectares of land under organic management. The total land under organic cultivation is estimated to be about 177,700 hectares, accounting for approximately 2% of the total agricultural area. In 2002, 100 organic farms were operating in Bangladesh (IFOAM & FiBL, 2006). There is also the practice of Organic shrimp farming in Bangladesh.

Brief overview of key organic products

Certified organic produce from Bangladesh includes tea, shrimps, cotton, and rice. These products are mainly exported. So far, there is no evidence of a domestic market for organic products.

The network

A grassroots initiative, called Nayakrishi Andolon (New Agriculture Movement) began in 1988 with the support of the UBINIG (Policy Research for Development Alternatives). The aim of the movement was to create a community-based work, which was organic in nature. They intended to incorporate traditional knowledge with newer scientific innovations suitable for both farmers and the environment. According to the IDRC, there are presently more than 2000 farmers all over Bangladesh engaged in Nayakrishi agriculture.

International Trade Center

UNCTAD/WTO

Organic Farming

Increasingly, organic farming is defined by formal standards regulating production methods, and in some cases, final output. Two types of standard exist, voluntary and legislated. As early as the 1970s, private associations created standards, against which organic producers could voluntarily have themselves certified. In the 1980s, governments began to produce organic production guidelines. Beginning in the 1990s, a trend toward legislation of standards began, most notably the EU-Eco-regulation developed in the European Union.

In 1991, the European Commission formulated the first government system to regulate organic labeling. In one go, the European Regulation (EEC) 2092/91 set the rules in 12 countries, creating a huge market.Organic certification, which until then was a voluntary quality control system, became mandatory to all operations and was also to be applied for imports. In the meantime, Europe had become the most prominent market place for organic products and an increasing number of suppliers all over the world accepted this niche as a new challenge and a rewarding option to export high quality and high priced speciality products. All these supplies, of course, had to comply with the requirements of the European market and thus the Regulation (EEC) N° 2092/91 became a universal standard for organic production systems

An international framework for organic farming is provided by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), the international democratic umbrella organization established in 1972. For IFOAM members, organic agriculture is based upon the Principles of Organic Agriculture and the IFOAM Norms. The IFOAM Norms consist of the IFOAM Basic Standards and IFOAM Accreditation Criteria.

The IFOAM Basic Standards are a set of "standards for standards." They are established through a democratic and international process and reflect the current state of the art for organic production and processing. They are best seen as a work in progress to lead the continued development of organic practices worldwide. They provide a framework for national and regional standard-setting and certification bodies to develop detailed certification standards that are responsive to local conditions.

Legislated standards are established at the national level, and vary from country to country. In recent years, many countries have legislated organic production, including the EU nations (1990s), Japan (2001), and the US (2002). Non-governmental national and international associations also have their own production standards. In countries where production is regulated, these agencies must be accredited by the government.

Since 1993 when EU Council Regulation 2092/91 became effective, organic food production has been strictly regulated in the UK.

wikipedia.org

History of organic farming

The organic movement began as a reaction of agricultural scientists and farmers against the industrialization of agriculture. Advances in biochemistry, (nitrogen fertilizer) and engineering (the internal combustion engine) in the early 20th century led to profound changes in farming. Research in plant breeding produced hybrid seeds. Fields grew in size and cropping became specialized to make efficient use of machinery and reap the benefits of the green revolution. Technological advances during World War II spurred on post-war innovation in all aspects of agriculture, resulting in such advances as large-scale irrigation, fertilization, and the use of pesticides. Ammonium nitrate, used in munitions, became an abundantly cheap source of nitrogen. DDT, originally developed by the military to control disease-carrying insects among troops, was applied to crops, launching the era of widespread pesticide use.

In Germany, Rudolf Steiner's Spiritual Foundations for the Renewal of Agriculture, published in 1924, led to the popularization of biodynamic agriculture.

The first use of the term organic farming is by Lord Northbourne. The term is derived from his concept of "the farm as organism" ^[5] and which he expounded in his book, Look to the Land (1940), wherein he described a holistic, ecologically balanced approach to farming.

The British botanist, Sir Albert Howard studied traditional farming practices in Bengal, India. He came to regard such practices as superior to modern agricultural science and recorded them in his 1940 book, An Agricultural Testament and adopted Northbourne's terminology in his book "The Soil and Health: A Study of Organic Agriculture" in 1947.

Lady Eve Balfour, author of the organics classic The Living Soil, established the pioneering Haughley Experiment on her Suffolk farm in 1939 that ran for more than 40 years.

In the US, J.I. Rodale popularized organic gardening among consumers during the 1940s.

The Japanese farmer and writer Masanobu Fukuoka invented a no-till system for small-scale grain production that he called Natural Farming. In the early 1940s.

In 1972, the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), was founded in Versailles, France. IFOAM was dedicated to the diffusion of information on the principles and practices of organic agriculture across national and linguistic boundaries.

In the 1980s, various farming and consumer groups worldwide began pressing for government regulation of organic production. This led to legislation and certification standards being enacted beginning in the 1990s.

Since the early 1990s, the retail market for organic farming in developed economies has grown about 20 per cent annually due to increasing consumer demand. While small independent producers and consumers initially drove the rise of organic farming, meanwhile as the volume and variety of "organic" products grows, production is increasingly large-scale.

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the history of agriculture society.

Bangladesh is an agricultural country. The economy of Bangladesh is primarily dependent on agriculture. About 84 percent of the total population live in rural areas and are directly or indirectly engaged in a wide range of agricultural activities.The agriculture sector plays a very important role in the economy of the country. The agriculture sector comprises crops, forests, fisheries and livestock. The agriculture sector is the single largest contributor to income and employment generation and a vital element in the country’s challenge to achieve self-sufficiency in food production reduce rural poverty and foster sustainable economic development. So I have opened AgricultureSociey. (www.agriculturesociety.blogspot.com). I think it will helpful for agriculturist & students. Please increase your agricultural knowledge & plays an important role in the economy of your country.

Agriculture of Bangladesh

Bangladesh is primarily an agrarian economy. Agriculture is the single largest producing sector of economy since it comprises about 30% of the country's GDP and employing around 60% of the total labor force. The performance of this sector has an overwhelming impact on major macroeconomic objectives like employment generation, poverty alleviation, human resources development and food security.

Meeting the nation's food requirements remain the key-objective of the government and in recent years there has been substantial increase in grain production. However, due to calamities like flood, loss of food and cash crops is a recurring phenomenon which disrupts the continuing progress of the entire economy.

Agricultural holdings in Bangladesh are generally small. Through Cooperatives the use of modern machinery is gradually gaining popularity. Rice, Jute, Sugarcane, Potato, Pulses, Wheat, Tea and Tobacco are the principal crops. The crop sub-sector dominates the agriculture sector contributing about 72% of total production. Fisheries, livestock and forestry sub-sectors are 10.33%, 10.11% and 7.33% respectively.

Bangladesh is the largest producer of Jute. Rice being the staple food, its production is of major importance. Rice production stood at 20.3 million tons in 1996-97 fiscal year. Crop diversification program, credit, extension and research, and input distribution policies pursued by the government are yielding positive results. The country is now on the threshold of attaining self-sufficiency in food grain production.

Discoverybangladesh

The history of agricultureSociety is coming soon